STATUS OF CORAL REEFS
IN SOUTH ASIA:
BANGLADESH, INDIA,
MALDIVES, SRI LANKA
Rajasuriya
A, Venkataraman
K., Muley E.V., Zahir H. & Cattermoul B.H.
Acknowldegements – The editors
would like to thank all of the participants from the GCRMN South Asia who’s work
has contributed not only to this report but also the continued progress within
the region towards securing a future for coral reef resources.
ABSTRACT
The major coral reefs in South Asia surround the
oceanic islands of Lakshadweep, Maldives, Chagos and the high islands of
Andaman and Nicobar. Other extensive reefs are in the Gulf of Mannar region.
There are also numerous fringing and patch reefs in India and Sri Lanka. In
Bangladesh, the only coral reefs are around St. Martin's Island, and there are only
scattered reef communities with no major reefs in Pakistan, but there is little
available information. Recent surveys indicate that recovery of corals bleached
during high water temperatures associated with the 1998 El Nino event is poor.
Natural and human disturbances, such as the crown-of-thorns starfish, coral
mining, destructive and unmanaged resource harvesting, sedimentation and
pollution continue to cause much damage to coral reefs in South Asia and reduce
their capacity to recover from the 1998 bleaching event. Capacity for
monitoring coral reefs has improved with donor assistance, however there is
limited application of monitoring data due to a lack of management mechanisms.
In the absence of appropriate management, the condition of marine protected
areas in South Asia has degraded. Several new protected reef areas have
recently been declared in the Maldives and another in the Andaman-Nicobar area.
This report highlights the increasing need to adapt the controlling frameworks
affecting reefs so that they adequately reflect the local social, cultural and
environmental conditions. This can only be achieved if the researchers and
scientists produce information that can effectively inform and influence
management and policy so that decisions at the local national and international
level are grounded in scientific evidence. .. Regional and country-specific
recommendations towards the improved use of information for management, sustainable use and conservation of coral
reefs in South Asia are identified.
INTRODUCTION
The
major coral reef resources are in India, Maldives, Sri Lanka the vast Chagos
Archipelago (for which little is known), in addition there is one coral reef in
Bangladesh (St. Martin's Island) and only sparse coral communities in Pakistan.
This status report updates the more detailed report produced in 2000 (‘Status
of Coral Reefs in South Asia: Bangladesh, India, Maldives, Sri Lanka’. By
A. Rajasuriya, H. Zahir, E.V. Muley,
B.R. Subramanian, K. Venkataraman, M.V.M. Wafar, S.M. Munjurul Hannan Khan and
E. Whittingham in ‘Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2000). Coral reef monitoring has been supported in
this region through a GCRMN Node by the UK Department for International
Development (DFID) since 1996.
The
largest coral reef areas are offshore in the Maldives, Lakshadweep (India) and
Chagos atolls, and the large reefs off the Andaman and Nicobar Islands (India);
There are also large areas of reef off the coast of the India (Gulf of Mannar
and Gulf of Kutch) and around Sri Lanka; these are generally in poor condition
due to the activities of large populations of coastal people who depend on
coral reef resources. The major physical influences are the southwest and
northeast monsoons, and cyclones are very rare in the major reef areas which
are within **oN and &&oS latitudes.
The
macro economic benefits provided by coral reefs are the most apparent in the
Maldives where the attraction of the coral reefs has contributed to the steady
increase in numbers of tourists over the last 10 years, helping the sector to
provide 33.1% of the GDP[1]
. To the other countries of South Asia the benefits provided by coral reefs
perhaps most significantly contribute to the livelihoods of the coastal
communities who rely upon them (see box ??).
for
India, Maldives, and Sri Lanka, as they provide the bulk of the direct export
earnings in tourism and are associated with tuna which are the other major
export earnerwith developing tourism developments.
A
major climate related event in the first half of 1998 destroyed large areas of
corals of the Maldives, Chagos and Lakshadweep atolls reefs, and reefs around
Sri Lanka and in the Gulf of Mannar of India. There were reports of bleaching
death to corals of 90% or more on reefs down to 20m depth and more. The
dominant branching and table corals were the most affected, with almost total
losses in many areas. This report provides data on the initial signs of
recovery and new recruitment.
Bangladesh:
St. Martin's is the only coral reef and it is heavily influenced by monsoons
and frequent cyclones and heavy sedimentation from the Ganges, Brahmaputra and
Meghna rivers. Corals exist as aggregations in seagrass beds and rocky
habitats.
Chagos Archipelago:
These 6 major atolls, many small islands and atolls, and submerged shoals form
the southern end of the Laccadive-Chagos ridge. These constitute the largest
area of near-pristine reefs in the Indian Ocean, and have high biodiversity.
They belong to the United Kingdom with a US military base on Diego Garcia.
India:The
coral reef areas are divided into 4 major groups; two are attached to the
mainland of India: Gulf of Mannar; and the Gulf of Kutch (Kachchh); with
Andaman and Nicobar Islands and Lakshadweep Islands offshore.
Fringing,
platform, patch and barrier reefs occur around 21 islands (ONLY 19 ISLANDS AND TWO ISLANDS SUBMERGED BELOW 3 METERS ONE
IN Keelakarai group and one in Tuticorin group) in the 132km
coastline.Gulf of Mannar. Corals are also found along the coast of the mainland
(Patterson 2002). One island from the Tuticorin group has been severely
eroded due to coral mining and has disappeared below the surface (Patterson
2002). (total 65km2).
Most of the reefs are used for coral mining
(coral mining is happening only in Tuticorn group)
and fisheries (including
harvesting of sacred chanks (Turbinella pyrum), sea cucumber, pipefishes, sea
horses and seaweeds (seeweed harvest only in some islands of Mandapam group).
There are 530 islands in the Andaman and Nicobars, but only 38 are inhabited.
Some of the richest reefs of
the Indian Ocean grow around these mountainous islands and most are relatively
intact. The Lakshadweep (Laccadive) Islands consist of 12 atolls, 36 islands
and 5 submerged banks at the northern end of the Laccadive-Chagos ridge. The
islands are surrounded by
4,200km2
of lagoon, raised reefs and banks and are the base for an important tuna
fishery with minimal tourism. Coral and sand mining, erosion, coastal
reclamation and Acanthaster planci infestations affect the health of the reefs.
The 34 out of 42 (Sampath 2002)
islands contain with fringing reefs of in the Gulf of Kutch. They have been severely damaged by habitat
changes as a result of, sedimentation, and industrial
pollution, extraction of coral sand, fishing with poisons and explosives (Sampath
2002), which
add to the stresses of high temperature, salinity changes, turbidity water and
12m exposure due to extreme tidal fluctuations.
The Maldives: These
are an archipelago (864km long 130km wide) on the Laccadive-Chagos ridge, with
1,190 coral islands (300km2), many sand cays and faroes within 23
atolls. The reefs are particularly rich and then slope rapidly down to the
seabed. Coral reef tourism and offshore tuna fisheries are the major components
of the economy.
Pakistan:
There are a few isolated patches of coral growth on hard substrates but more
extensive growth is limited by the high sedimentation and very turbid
conditions. There is an almost no information on these corals.
Sri Lanka:
Corals grow on old limestone, sandstone and rocky reefs and also on 2% of the
coastline as fringing reefs. The largest areas are in the Gulf of Mannar to the
northwest and along the east coast. Reefs are important for fisheries, coastal
tourism, and preventing coastal erosion.
CORAL
REEF STATUS AND BIODIVERSITY
Bangladesh: Coral communities
extend to about 200m offshore of St. Martin's Island with maximum coral cover
of 7.6% and colony density of 1.3m-2. These comprise 66 hard coral
species, the most common are Porites, Acropora, Favites, Goniopora, Cyphastrea
and Goniastrea. Acropora spp. are the target for coral harvesters, as well as
Favites and Goniastrea. There also many soft corals, sea fans, and sea whips.
Other invertebrates are only represented by a few, with molluscs being the most
abundant large invertebrates, however, these are declining due to unregulated
harvesting. Reef fish diversity is low (86 species) with damselfish
(Pomacentridae), surgeonfish (Acanthuridae) and parrotfish (Scaridae) being the
most abundant. There are also 5 species of butterflyfish (Chaetodontidae) and
one angelfish (Pomacanthus annularis). Predator species (groupers, snappers,
and emperors) are heavily fished. There are no reports of coral bleaching from
St. Martin's Island.
Chagos: These reefs have the
highest species diversity of corals and molluscs in the Indian Ocean. There are
no comprehensive studies on reef fish and other invertebrates, yet
reef-building corals have been relatively well studied. The smaller islands
support large colonies of sea birds, sea turtles and many species of small
cetaceans. Formal protection for the Chagos reefs has been proposed. Corals
around Chagos were seriously affected by the bleaching event in 1998. Before
this bleaching event seaward reef status included: 50%-70% live coral cover,
10%-20% soft corals and approximately 10-20% bare substrate. Approimately 55%
of the live coral cover on the outer reefs was lost after the bleaching,
including most of the table corals. Soft corals, fire coral (Millepora sp.) and
blue coral (Heliopora caerulea) were also heavily impacted during 1998 event,
while large Porites colonies on the outer slopes were only partially bleached,
and calcareous algal ridges around the atolls were unaffected. The corals in
the reef lagoons survived better than those on the outer reefs, potentially
because they normally experience higher temperatures and have built up
tolerance to temperature increases.
India:
The coral reef areas are divided into 4
major groups; two are attached to the mainland of India: Gulf of Mannar; and
the Gulf of Kutch (Kachchh); with Andaman and Nicobar Islands and Lakshadweep
Islands offshore. The Gulf of Mannar reefs form a string of 21(19 islands and two submerged islands) islands in
southeast India, and contain narrow fringing reefs around the islands, plus
platform, patch and barrier reefs; all with extensive reef flats (total 65 km2).
These reefs are used for coral mining (in Tuticorin
group) and fisheries (including harvesting of sacred chanks (Turbinella pyrum), sea cucumber, pipefishes, sea horses and seaweeds (in Mandapam group)). There are 530 islands in the
Andaman and Nicobars, but only 38 are inhabited. Some of the richest reefs of
the Indian Ocean grow around these mountainous islands and most are relatively
intact. The Lakshadweep (Laccadive) Islands consist of 12 atolls, 36 islands
and 5 submerged banks at the northern end of the Laccadive-Chagos ridge. The
islands are surrounded by 4,200km2 of lagoon, raised reefs and banks
and are the base for an important tuna fishery with minimal tourism. The 42
islands with fringing reefs of the Gulf of Kutch have been severely damaged by
habitat changes, sedimentation and industrial pollution, which add to the
stresses of high temperature, salinity changes, turbid water and 12m tides. (There is no status of coral reef mentioned here) (The mean status of corals in Gombr as per
1988- 2000 study it is 25% live coral cover, A&N Islands 56 - 65 % live coral cover, 10 – 20 %, (E.V. Muley · J.R.B. Alfred · K.
Venkataraman · M.V.M. Wafar, 2000
Status of coral reefs of India, 9ICRS,
Proceedings) Gulf of Kutch 10-20 (recent survey by ZSI, Chennai).
Biodiversity: Scleractinian corals
GOMBR 93, Lakshadweep, 77, GOK 38 and
A& N Islands 138 modified Pillai 1996 list by ZSI, MBS and recent UNDP under
water survey 111 new records to Andaman Islands (Turner et al, 2001).
KINDLY INOFRM WHETHER YOU NEED DIVERSITY OF CORAL ASSOCIATED FAUNA
FROM THE ABOVE REGIONS PLEASE.
The
Maldives: These are an archipelago (864km long 130km wide) on the Laccadive-Chagos
ridge, with 1,190 coral islands (300km2), many sand cays and faroes
within 23 atolls. The reefs are particularly rich and then slope rapidly down
to the seabed. Coral reef tourism and offshore tuna fisheries are the major
components of the economy.
Pakistan:
There are a few isolated patches of coral growth on hard substrates but more
extensive growth is limited by the high sedimentation and very turbid
conditions. There is almost no information on these corals.
Sri
Lanka: Corals grow to on old limestone, sandstone and rocky reefs and also on
2% of the coastline as fringing reefs. The largest areas are in the Gulf of
Mannar to the northwest and along the east coast. Reefs are important for
fisheries, coastal tourism, and preventing coastal erosion.
CORAL REEF STATUS AND
BIODIVERSITY (AGAIN THE SAME TITLE?)
Bangladesh: Coral communities extend
to about 200m offshore of St. Martin's Island with maximum coral cover of 7.6%
and colony density of 1.3m-2. These comprise 66 hard coral species, the most common are Porites,
Acropora, Favites, Goniopora, Cyphastrea and Goniastrea. Acropora spp. are the
target for coral harvesters, as well as Favites and Goniastrea. There also many
soft corals, sea fans, and sea whips. Other invertebrates are only represented by a few, with
molluscs being the most abundant large invertebrates, however, these are
declining due to unregulated harvesting. Reef fish diversity is low (86
species) with damselfish (Pomacentridae), surgeonfish (Acanthuridae) and
parrotfish (Scaridae)
being the most abundant. There are also 5 species of butterflyfish
(Chaetodontidae) and one angelfish (Pomacanthus annularis). Predator species
(groupers, snappers, and emperors) are heavily fished. There are no reports of
coral bleaching from St. Martin's
Island.
Chagos: These reefs have the
highest species diversity of corals and molluscs in the Indian Ocean. There are
no comprehensive studies on reef fish and other invertebrates, yet
reef-building corals have been relatively well studied. The smaller islands support large
colonies of sea birds, sea turtles and many species of small cetaceans. Formal
protection for the Chagos reefs has been proposed. Corals around Chagos were
seriously affected by the bleaching event in 1998. Before this bleaching event seaward reef status
included: 50%-70% live coral cover, 10%-20% soft corals and approximately
10-20% bare substrate. Approimately 55% of the live coral cover on the outer
reefs was lost after the bleaching, including most of the table corals. Soft
corals, fire coral
(Millepora sp.) and blue coral (Heliopora caerulea) were also heavily impacted
during 1998 event, while large Porites colonies on the outer slopes were only
partially bleached, and calcareous algal ridges around the atolls were
unaffected. The
corals in the reef lagoons survived better than those on the outer reefs,
potentially because they normally experience higher temperatures and have built
up tolerance to temperature increases.
India: In the Gulf of Mannar,
approximately 3,600 species have
been recorded within the three main ecosystems (coral reefs, mangroves and sea
grass beds) in the Gulf of Mannar. Biodiversity on the reefs include 94 species of coral belonging to 37 genera
(Pillai, 1971 recorded 117 species under 33 genera and Pillai, 1986 consolidated this
list to 94 species under 37 genera), with the most common corals being Acropora,
Montipora and Porites. Other major commercial resources in the area include seaweeds, sea horse, pipefish, lobsters,
commercial fishes, sacred chanks (Turbinella pyrum),
other shells and shell products, sharks, pearl oysters, sea turtles, dugongs and
dolphins. The main seaweeds are Gracilaria, Gelidiella, Hypnea, Sarconema,
Hydrodathrus, Caulerpa, Sargassum and Turbinaria. Reef fish diversity and
abundance has not
been well documented. The bleaching
event in 1998 destroyed most shallow water corals in the Gulf of Mannar; with
live coral cover reduced by 60-80% and only about 25% of live corals remaining.
The most affected species were the branching Acropora spp. and Pocillopora spp. All the Montipora
spp. on Pullivasal Island (northeast Gulf of Mannar) was bleached during 1998
(although Montipora
aequituberculata escaped bleaching in southern Sri Lanka).
Massive corals are now dominant in all 3-island groups, with branching corals almost completely
wiped out in the Tuticorin group, while only 1-2% survived in the other two
island groups. Surveys carried out by the Zoological Survey of India, Chennai
one year after the bleaching observed patchy coral recruitment on the mainland
coast. A recent study conducted in GoMBR shows that there is a further
reduction in the live coral percentage due to bleaching in the shallow reef
area. Many of the massive corals occur
in the shallow regions were seen bleached (April 2002). About 40 transects were laid in all the
seven islands of the Mandapam group showed a 19.53% live coral cover (Live
coral cover 19.53%; Dead coral 21.38%; Sand and sand and rubble 53.38% and
others 5.72%). (CORAL BLEACHING WAS ALSO NOTICED
DURING THIS PERIOD AND IT WAS NOTICED THAT MOST OF MASSIVE CORALS PRESENT IN
THE SHALLOW REGIONS WERE BLEACHED AND RECOVERED WITH IN TWO MONTHS)
The
Andaman
and Nicobar Islands have about 11, 939 km2 (survey conducted under
the PDF B Phase for UNDP GEF) of reef lagoons, coral banks, reef slopes and reef
flat areas. North and South Andaman groups are dominated by Porites spp. Middle
Andaman and Nicobar Islands are dominated by Acropora spp. The reef flat area
around the northern Andaman Islands is about 520 km2. Two hundred and three
species of hard corals have been reported from the islands. Recent surveys have
indicated that the coral diversity is much higher than what was reported
previously around Andaman Islands. There are 197 species of hard corals in 58
genera, which includes 110 species of corals recently added to the list of
coral species for the Andaman Islands (Turner et al. 2001). Previous reports
(Wilkinson 2000) indicated that nearly 80% of the reefs in the Andaman and
Nicobar groups were bleached. However recent surveys indicate that 56% remains
live and 20% was dead coral with 11% coral rubble. During the recent surveys there was no evidence of bleaching or
damage caused by Acanthaster planci (Venkataraman 2002).
In the Nicobar Islands the highest live coral cover
(73.49%) was recorded around North reef. Coral cover in Car Nicobar and Outram
are 72.68% and 67.33% respectively. Most of the reefs are dominated by Acropora
or Porites (Kulkarni 2002). The high live coral cover in the Nicobar
Islands indicate that there had not been any bleaching. Acropora spp dominate
the coral reefs of the Middle Andaman and Nicobar group of islands. Some of the
other locations in the South Andaman Islands were dominated by sediment
tolerant species (e.g. Porites spp). Most of the reefs in the Andaman
and Nicobar Islands consisted of mixed coral morphology reefs whilst the
branching and tabulate composition was similar to massive and sub-massive coral
composition (Kulkarni 2002). In excess of 1200 species of fish species have
been recorded around Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Sponges, sharks, spiny
lobsters, dugongs, dolphins and sea turtles are other resources in the
islands.
In
the Lakshadweep Islands
95 hard coral species was reported prior to the bleaching event in 1998, which
destroyed between 43% and 87% of the live corals. 603 species of reef and
oceanic species of fish are known from Lakshadweep. Coral cover declined to
about 10% around Kadmat Island as a result of the bleaching in 1998. At present
the live coral cover in the shallow areas is about 1%.(please
check).
Coral
reefs in the Gulf of
Kutch is found around 34 islands. Corals grow under extreme environmental conditions of high
salinity and low tides Most of the coral growth is on the northern side and where
the currents are strongest. On the eastern side of the islands contain dead
corals. Forty-two species of hard corals and 10 species of soft corals have
been reported during recent surveys (GEER foundation Gujarat 2002). Other
species include sponges (50), Hydrozoa (3), Bryozoa (1), Jellyfish (3), Sea
anemone (4), Zoanthid (7) Crustacea (39), Mollusca (133) and Echinoderms (6).
Among the vertebrates 150 species of fishes, 3 species of turtles and 4 species
of sea snakes have been recorded.
Corals
are also found along the Malvan coast of India about 35 km from Mumbai.
The shoreline and reefs are rocky and live coral is found on rocky substrates.
Coral distribution is sparse and the density of corals is about 1-2 colonies
per square meter. Suspended sediment load are high in these coastal waters and
the salinity decreases to < 15 ppt for several months during the year
(Sampath 2002).
Maldives: Along with the Chagos Archipelago, the Maldives
support the greatest diversity of corals and associated reef organisms in the
region, with at least 209 species of stony corals. Coral reefs of the Maldives
were in excellent condition prior to 1998, but were degraded heavily during the
bleaching event. Surveys show that about 2% live coral remains on the reef tops
at study sites in Haa Dhaal, North and South Male, Ari, Vaavu and Addu atolls.
Observations by tourist divers and others indicate a similar status throughout
the country, with approximately 20% loss of live coral cover compared to
pre-bleaching observations. Recent surveys show that the bleaching has affected
north and south Male atolls more than other areas of the country, however,
encouraging levels of recruitment have been observed at all the sites, with
many Acropora amongst the new recruits.
Pakistan: Detailed information on the biodiversity reef
habitats in Pakistan is lacking, although a marine reference collection and
resource centre was set up in the University of Karachi in 1969.
Sri Lanka: The
healthiest reefs in Sri Lanka were those remote from human settlements prior to 1998, with living coral
cover estimates ranging from more than 80% cover on coral reefs at the Bar Reef
Marine Sanctuary, to more than 50% cover at Weligama on the south coast, and
about 35% in the Hikkaduwa Marine Sanctuary in
the south. During the bleaching in 1998, most shallow reef areas of
Sri Lanka were destroyed including areas from the northwest
around to the east coast, except near Trincomalee. Recent surveys indicate that recovery is variable. In the Bar
Reef Marine Sanctuary there were many colonies of small branching Acropora
and Pocillopra damicornis in the shallow areas in early 2002 indicating
that natural recovery is taking place. In the 1-3 meter depth range the number
of tabulate Acropora colonies were higher than the branching Acropora
colonies. The largest of these recently grown Acropora corals was about
100 cm in diameter and about 35 cm in height. However new growth of live coral
is patchy and much of the reef still remains bare. Much of the reef structure
is intact due the growth of encrusting coralline alga. Coral growth was better at a slightly deeper
area of 7-8 m which had Acropora, Montipora, Favites, Favia, Pavona,
Cyphastrea, Hydnophora, Galaxea and Podabacea). Live coral cover at
this site at Bar Reef was 14%, of which 2.8% was branching Acropora species
and 0.3% was tabulate Acropora species. Due to low live coral cover the
butterfly fish are yet rare on the Bar Reef. Newly settled juvenile Chromis
viridis and Dascyllus aruanus were seen among the new growth of
branching Acropora colonies. Herbivores (Siganids, juvenile Scarids and
Acanthurids) were common.
In
the Hikkaduwa Nature Reserve a slight improvement in the live coral cover from
7% in 1999 to 12% at present was recorded. This is increase is mainly due to an
increase in Monitpora aequituberculata which large escaped the
bleaching. Generally the only other corals that are surviving are the sediment
tolerant species such as Favia, Favites, Montastrea and Porites.
Natural recruitment of branching Acropora was not recorded during recent
surveys. A reef immediately outside the Hikkaduwa Nature Reserve had a much
higher live coral cover although this reef is an ancient limestone platform
with many different species including Porites (4.4%), Acropora (3.9%),
Favites (2.4%), Montipora (1.3%) and Platygyra (1.2%) as
the dominant forms of reef building corals.
The
shallow reef at Kandakuliya, south of the Bar Reef Marine Sanctuary has been
completely overgrown by Halimeda sp killing almost all new coral
recruits observed in 2001. The Rumassla
(Buona Vista reef) in the south had a live coral cover of 19.6% and recovery
was mainly due to Acropora aculeus, Hydnophora microconos, Galaxea
fascicularis, Favia and Favites spp. The Weligama reef also in the south had a
better receovery of branching Acropora species after the bleaching event in
1998. However this area is now being affected adversely due to ornamental fish
collecting as all the collectors operate in a small area of live corals.
Live
coral cover was 21% in 2002. Much of the reef is now covered by Halimeda
(28%).
A
study conducted at Weligama to measure the number of coral recruits in the
natural habitat revealed that the density of recruits was 2.4 per 0.5 m².
The
Pigeon Islands in Trincomalee was affected by a storm surge and cyclone in 2000
and some damage to the reef was reported although the reefs at this site
escaped the bleaching event in 1998. However recovery has been observed. Crown
of Thorns starfish continue to be a problem and more recently damage is being
caused by large numbers of local visitors.
Coral
on the offshore reef habitats at depths greater than 10 to 15 meters remain
healthy.
Table
1: Percentage of live corals pre and post bleaching at selected reef sites in
Sri Lanka.
CORAL REEF FISHERIES
There
is little information on fisheries in this region, although they are of great
importance to local communities and economies. Most fisheries are for
subsistence, hence data are not gathered for national fisheries statistics.
This also is the case for marine ornamental fisheries, which are important in
the Maldives and Sri Lanka.
Coral reefs provide
approximately 25% of the marine fish catch in India. The annual catch in the
Gulf of Mannar of India is reported as 45,000 metric tonnes per year, mostly
demersal fish with some reef fish. From July 2001 onwards the sponges, gorgonids,
corals, molluscan shells, shark fins were banned from collecting from this area
which may enhance the quality of reef. This ban is also accounted for other reef areas
in India. In the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, the catch is around 26,55mt
with a large component of pelagic fishes including sardines. The major fishery
in the Lakshadweepand the Maldives is for tuna and the live bait sprat are caught
in the coral reef lagoons. Recently a grouper fishery commenced in the Maldives
for the live food fish trade and also to supply tourist resorts. Shark (for the
fins) and sea cucumbers are fished exclusively for export. In Sri Lanka, the
bulk of fishery products are consumed within the family or in local
communities. For these there are poor statistics. The export fishery includes
lobsters, sea cucumber, sacred chanks and ornamental fish. Reef fish are not
differentiated in fisheries statistics, but are included as ‘rockfish’ within
the coastal fisheries which average from 9,000 to 10,000mt each year. 10,585mt
in 1994 to 9,100mt in 1997 and increased slightly to 9,200mt in 1998. The
aquarium trade accounts for 40-50% of the US $6.6 million export trade. Export
of molluscs is also a major component. The main fishery in Bangladesh is small
scale using bottom-weighted gill nets and hook and line, as well as export
fisheries for sea cucumber and molluscs.
THREATS TO CORAL REEFS AND MANAGEMENT ISSUES
The
region can be divided into two groups when considering threats to coral reefs:
Chagos, the Maldives and the Indian Lakshadweep and Andaman and Nicobar Islands
are relatively remote from human impacts; whereas the coastal reefs off
Bangladesh, India, and Sri Lanka are heavily impacted by human activities with
these increasing as populations and economies increase.
The
major threats to the coral reefs in coastal Bangladesh, India, and Sri Lanka
are high levels of destructive fishing, industrial, agricultural and domestic
pollution, sedimentation and coral mining, combined with major changes to
coastal habitats from human settlements and increased. industrial development
There are two main categories of fishing activities that occur within the
coastal waters of South Asia – Industrial and Artisanal, each possing threats
to the coral reefs of a different type and magnitude. In the Gulf of Manar
bottom trawling by semi-industrial vessels has been cited as a major threat[2]
to the reefs.
In
a sector which is characterised as labour intensive and of low mechanical
sophistication the artisanal fishermen of South Asia receive a wide range of
benefits from the coral reef resources of the region. However a
proliferation of damaging gears and crude fishing techniques[3],
reported by researchers and managers in India and Sri Lanka, including bamboo
traps, set nets and blast fishing are posing a series threat to the sustained
flows of these benefits. In addition there is widespread collection for the
aquarium trade and harvesting of molluscs, as well as turtles and dugongs,
which now seriously endangered. Coral and sand collection for building, making
of lime and curios continues to damage coastal reefs.
Industrial
and Domestic Pollution continues to be a significant threat, no where more so
that in the Gulf of Kutch where the externalities of Industrial growth are
having severe impacts on the coral reef ecosystems.
The
more remote Indian reefs on the Andaman and Nicobar Islands are being impacted
by increased sediment flows to the nearshore reefs due largely to unregulated
loggingand encroachment into the forestry reserves by settlerss Some damage has
occurred through coral mining, dredging and blasting of corals for navigational
channels. Fishing activity is increasing on these reefs as well as on the
Lakshadweep Islands where fishing in the lagoons for live bait for tuna is
increasing. There are some minor examples of pollution from untreated sewage.
Bleaching on the Lakshadweeps was severe in 1998 with major losses of corals.
Most reefs in the Maldives are better protected, mainly because of their
isolation from human activity. The main damage occurs around the heavily
populated islands e.g. the capital Male and tourist developments. Coral mining,
dredging of channels for boats and coastal construction have resulted in a
lowering of the reef flats around some of these islands or major changes in
sand distribution and erosion. Reef fisheries are increasing, mainly to supply
tourist resorts and the crown-of-thorns starfish has also impacted on the
reefs. Damage during the 1998 El Nino bleaching event was severe on both
populated and remote reefs. The only threats to the Chagos reefs are through
coral bleaching and more recently through illegal fishing, including the
collection of sea cucumbers, shark and possibly live fish for the restaurant
trade in East Asia.
CLIMATE CHANGE AND IMPACTS
The
most vulnerable areas for sea level rises are the atolls and low-lying coastal
regions, whereas the coral reefs themselves will be only minimally affected
provided they still contain healthy coral populations. There has been coastal
erosion, and saline intrusion into fresh groundwaters along the western and
southern coasts of Sri Lanka and possible increases in cyclone activities in the
Bay of Bengal (Bangladesh and India) will cause greater erosion and loss of
economic activities.
Awareness
by governments increased radically with dramatic rises in seawater temperatures
in the Indian Ocean during the first half of 1998 with widespread coral
bleaching and destruction of coral reefs in Chagos, the Maldives, Sri Lank and
western Indian regions. Average sea surface temperatures have risen by 0.12oC
per decade during the last 50 years and a continuation will have major impacts
on the coral reefs.
STATUS and GAPS OF MARINE PROTECTED AREAS
(MPAs), MONITORING AND CAPACITY
The
need for marine protected areas (MPAs) covering coral reefs has been recognised
by all governments, but commitments to the management of existing MPAs and the
planning for new areas are still inadequate to ensure conservation of the coral
reef resources. However, monitoring capacity has improved greatly in South
Asia, particularly in India following activities of the GCRMN South Asia Node,
funded by the UK Government.
India
has 36 marine protected areas of which 20 are having entire areas in
intertidal/subtidal or seawater-mangroves, coral reefs, lagoons, estuaries,
beaches etc., and rest of the 13 are having major parts in marine ecosystem and
some part in terrestrial ecosystem. The above list includes three marine
biosphere reserves. There are 5 MPAs in India (Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve
10,500km2 which includes Gulf of Mannar Marine National
Park (Ramathapuram to Tuticorin, 1980, 6.23 km2); Gulf of Kutch Marine National Park - 400km2
(includes Marine Sanctuary, Gulf of Kachchh, 1980, 295.03 km2);
Mahatma Gandhi Marine National Park / Wandoor Marine National Park in Andamans
- 282km2; Great Nicobar Biosphere Reserve - 885km2;
and Rani Jhansi Marine National Park 256
km2 (Richies Archipelogo) suffer from encroachment
of coastal populations with destructive activities and loss of resources. The
more remote MPAs on the Andaman and Nicobar Islands and in Lakshadweep are
better protected. Resources, both human and logistic, for management and
enforcement are inadequate. Virtually all the MPAs in the Maldives are small
and associated with tourist locations; hence the management is provided by the
tourist operators, with little involvement of the government. Thus management focuses
on large fishes and associated fauna. The 2 MPAs with coral reefs in Sri Lanka
have adequate management plans and protective legislation, however, there is no
effective management and the boundaries are ignored by local communities.
Many
more sites are under consideration for management, often through the assistance
of external project activities, but greater government commitment towards
conservation is essential for success. The one coral reef area in Bangladesh
continues to decline in status.
India
had no coral reef monitoring prior to 1998 due to a major lack of equipment and
trained scuba divers, and also to a lack of government and community support.
Since then Coral Reef Monitoring Action Plans (CRMAPs) have prepared for all
areas and programs are in progress to train people to monitor the reefs,
however, progress is slow.
While
there has been considerable reef monitoring in the Maldives, this information
is scattered and virtually none of used to support decision-making. Moreover,
many monitoring programs have been discontinued when projects have finished
with the government not providing continuity. The Maldives needs a coordinated
approach to the monitoring and management of these resources that are critical
for the tourist industry. The sites in the CRMAPs in Sri Lanka have been well
monitored in the past, however this information is not used by government for
site management. All sites close to shore in Sri Lanka show clear signs of
human damage, and this was compounded in 1998 during the mass bleaching event.
TABLE 2: MPAS anywhere in STATUS and GAPS above
Above
is a summary of MPAs, their current status and the major limitations for
effective conservation.
GOVERNMENT POLICIES, LAWS AND LEGISLATION
All
countries in the region have established laws to conserve natural resources,
with some including specific legislation on corals and coral reefs e.g. the
Maldives. However, these laws are rarely enforced through a lack of government
and community awareness of the problems facing the coral reefs and the need for
management and through a lack of capacity in government and private sectors to
implement monitoring and management.
In
Bangladesh, the government has the power to establish a national park for their
one coral reef, St Martins Island, but this has not been implemented, despite
calls for its conservation.
The
government of India also has laws to protect coral reefs and other coastal
environments and prohibits the collection of corals. To
effect this all the scleractnian corals and
gorgonids are included in the Schedule list of wild life act 1972 from July
2001. To protect the coral reef
associated organisms such as the sponges, molluscs, sharks and skates are
banned from collecting as well as punishable offence under the wild life act 1972. It is only
since the late 90s and the formation of the Indian Coral Reef Monitoring
Network and the Indian Coral Reef Initiative that there is a cross-sectoral
approach to improve coral reef management. Under this banner Government of
India, Ministry of Environment has funded monitoring training programmes in all
the four major coral reef areas and for conservation and management programmes
to the state government where the coral reef areas are situated. National coral reef research Institute has
been established in Port Blair to conduct research on the thrust areas as well
as support the management and conservation of coral reef resources. Indian
Society for Coral Reef Studies have been formed and to enhance the conservation
of coral reefs of India Government of India has also currently running an India
Australia capacity building and Training programme where in many coral reef
managers and scientists will be trained in Australia for management and
research capacity respectively. With
assistance of GCRMN, South Asia, a database on the four major coral reefs has
been developed which is of great use to the managers to effect conservation
measures.
Many sectors of the government of the
Maldives are involved in coral reef management, particularly in recognition of
the importance and value of reefs to their economy, especially through tourism.
Some of the more remote atolls still have systems of traditional management and
some of these have been incorporated into fisheries law. Regulation of coral
mining was seen as a key issue in 1992 and specific regulations were enacted
then to prevent coastal erosion. Many ministries and government departments in
Sri Lanka have coastal management responsibilities, but this results in
cross-sectoral disputes or problems being ignored. Environmental issues have
received lesser focus in government recently due to the ongoing instability. A
coastguard has been established to control illegal fishing but it is
under-resourced.
CONCLUSIONS
·
High water temperatures associated
with the 1998 El Nino event caused widespread coral bleaching in the South Asia
region and destroyed many of the shallow water corals (to 10m depth). Bleaching
impacts were less severe in Gulf of Kutch and Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
Surveys and observations since the 1998 bleaching indicate that recovery is
slow, with patchy recruitment observed at many locations.
·
The coral reefs of South
Asia affect, and are affected, by a hugely diverse range of stakeholders which
means that the issues that managers are facing are highly complex and will not
be solved with isolated interventions. Both within South Asia, and from the
international community, we have the resources and skills that potentially
could have a positive impact, but only through coordinated and coherent action
can this potential be converted into actual results.
·
Coral reefs continue to be
degraded by human impacts associated with growing populations and coastal
development and specifically related to uncontrolled resource exploitation, coral
mining and the effects of sedimentation and pollution. Natural impacts also
play a part in coral reef degradation with reefs threatened by crown-of-thorns
starfish and impacts related to climate change, such as coral bleaching and
cyclones.
·
The capacity to monitor reef
resources has improved with training activities undertaken by the GCRMN Node
for India, Maldives and Sri Lanka. Advances in biophysical monitoring are
particularly apparent in India, with continued training undertaken with support
from ICRMN.Despight the increased production of information within the region
management and policy decisions at the
international, national and local level are still being made with little regard
foor the local social, cultural and environmental conditions. This is resulting
in ineffective management and policy which in turn is not reversing the
degredation of the reefs within the regionWhere information is produced it is
important that it is disseminated in a way that effectively informs and
influences the stakeholders that affect and are affected by the benefits of
coral reefs.
·
The role of the GCRMN is
evolving within the region to one of coordination, guidance and targeted
support for the information providers and information users at the local,
national and international levels. ,
REGIONAL RECOMMENDATIONS:
·
Quite often we are seeing international policy, and donor funding
decisions being made with little regard for local social, economic, cultural
and environmental conditions. There is a clear need to ensure that the
international decision making process is grounded in the reality of local
conditions.
·
There is a need to highlight past and present research and management
interventions so that these can be built upon and not simply repeated in the
future.
·
Stakeholders at all levels need to be
involved in the management and policy decision making process.
·
There is a need to build confidence between the stakeholder
organisations within South Asia, particularly between governmental and
non-governmental organisations.
·
Explore and develop linkages between India and Sri Lanka
researchers and managers in the Gulf of Manar region.
·
At national level policy and management and
enforcement needs to be stable and applied, if any progress is to be made
towards a sustainable future.
·
·
Improve evaluation of reef fisheries and identify and develop viable
alternative livelihoods or sustainable livelihoods for those dependent on
threatened reef resources;
·
Strengthen the capacity to develop and implement regulations relating
to resource extraction;
·Identify sustainable long-term funding mechanisms
for protected area management and habitat conservation activities.
Bangladesh:
·
Develop
and implement environmental, biological, socio-economic and user monitoring
programs;
·
Develop
a clear government policy statement on the future conservation, management and
protection objectives of marine resources for St. Martin's Island, which will
also address the coordinated management of coastal lands; and
·
Support
the proposed management plan for St. Martin's Island and its coral resources
with planning that involves all levels of government (i.e. an
inter-governmental approach).
India:
·
Need
for central policy decisions to recognise the essential uniqueness of each of
the coral reef areas when creating policy.
·
Strengthen
the network of coral reef information providers within India and develop the
role of the ICRMN to act as the body to
provide coordination and coherence for policy and programmes relating to coral
reef resources, to provide better integration between government departments,
institutions and local groups and to support the implementation of Management
Action Plans;
·
Strengthen
capacity to collect information, relating to coral reefs and reef dependent
communities, that will effectively inform and influence change in the
stakeholders who affect and are affected by coral reefss and increase
monitoring activities; and
·
Provide
training and awareness raising at all levels to better appreciate the concepts
of conservation and sustainable use of coral reef resources.
Maldives:
·
Provide
more training opportunities in marine resource conservation, management and
assessment;
·
Enhance
collaborative work between government research groups and local community, NGOs
and international organizations
·
Enhance
the role of the tourist industry to collect and use coral reef monitoring
information..
·
Provide
training and awareness raising at all levels to better appreciate the concepts
of conservation and sustainable use of coral reef resources
Pakistan:
·
Develop
capacity to locate and identify possible reef areas; and
·
Develop
capability in taxonomy of reef organisms.
Sri
Lanka:
·
Improve
information collection and dissemination relating to the social and economic
benefit flows from coral reefs;
·
Develop
sustainable livelihoods programmes for those communities who are reliant upon
the reefs for their livelihoods.
·
Utilise
existing mechanisms such a vocational training centres to develop alternative
skills within fisher communities
·
Improve
existing marine resource use plans and develop the capacity for management so
that it can adequately reflect the importance of the coral reefs.
·
Improve
management of marine protected areas by demarcating the boundaries, increasing
capabilities of day to day management such as patrolling and training of
personnel
·Carry out detailed
studies to identify important reef resources such as sponges, and other
organisms with a view to developing a bio-prospecting industry, which may have
the potential to encourage improved conservation of resources in recognition of
their economic value;
·Provide assistance
for managing protected areas via financial support for protected area
demarcation, patrolling capabilities and training of personnel; and
·Train the coastguard
and purchase the necessary equipment for effective enforcement of resource use
laws.
SUPPORTING DOCUMENTATION
Rajasuriya,
A., Zahir, H., Muley, E.V., Subramanian, B.R., Venkataraman, K., Wafar, M.V.M.,
Munjurul Hannan Khan, S.M. and Whittingham E. (2000). Status of Coral Reefs in
South Asia: Bangladesh, India, Maldives, Sri Lanka. In: Wilkinson, C. (ed).
Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2000, Australian Institute of Marine
Science and Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network, Townsville, 363p.
Kulkarni.
S. 2002: Coral reef research in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands; The
conservation status the coral reefs. (Report presented at GCRMN South Asia
India National workshop 8-10 September 2002)
Patterson Edward. J.K 2002: Report on coral reef work in
Tuticorin coast, Gulf of Mannar by SDMRISuganthi Devadason Marine Research Institute
(SDMRI). :
(submitted for the GCRMN South Asia India National workshop 8-10 September 2002)
Sampath
V. 2002: Status of coral Reefs of India (Report presented at GCRMN South Asia
India National workshop 8-10 September 2002)
Turner
et al (2002):??
E.V. Muley · J.R.B. Alfred · K. Venkataraman · M.V.M. Wafar 2000. Status of coral
reefs of India, 9ICRS, Proceedings.
Turner, J.R., Vousden, D., Klaus, R., Satyanarayana, C., Fenner, D.,
Venkataraman, K., Rajan, P.T> and Subba Rao, N.V. 2001. Report of Phase I:
Remote sensing and Rapid Site Assessment Survey, April 2001. Coral Reef sustems
of the Andaman Islands. Government of India and United National Development
Programme, Global Environment Facility, 76p, with 8 Appendices and 55 Figures
and Plates.
Node Contacts
and Representatives: See GCRMN South Asia Box
Table 1
|
Location |
Depth (m) |
Pre-bleaching (Percentage of live coral) |
1999 – 2000 (Percentage of live coral) |
2001-2002 (Percentage of live coral) |
|
Bar reef |
0-3 |
78.5% overall in 1993-1994. ** |
Nearly 100% mortality ** |
Several new colonies recorded but too sparse to estimate
percent cover. |
|
Bar reef |
7-8 |
Nearly 100% mortality |
14 |
|
|
Kandakuliya |
0-5 |
22* |
Small colonies were present ** |
Corals smothered by Halimeda. |
|
Hikkaduwa Nature Reserve |
0-4 |
47.2 ** |
7 ** |
12 |
|
Hikkaduwa, South of Nature Reserve |
7-13 |
Not estimated |
Not estimated |
17 |
|
Rumassala |
1-5 |
45 ***** |
19.6**** |
Better recovery at 4-5 m depth. Live coral cover not
estimated |
|
Weligama |
0-2 |
92 ** |
28 ** 31.04*** |
54 |
Sources:
*Ohman and Rajasuriya 1993; ** Rajasuriya and Karunarathna 2000; *** Fairoze, Cumaranatunge and Amarasinghe
2000; ****Rajasuriya (unpublished report); *****Rajasuriya et al. 1998.
Table 2
|
MPAs |
Status |
Management |
Major
issues |
|
Bangladesh |
|
|
|
|
St. Martin’s Island (in
the National Conservation Strategy protected area programme). |
Only small coral reefs
& scattered coral growth on limestone and rocky habitats. Corals and other nearshore
resources are rapidly degrading |
Management is weak mainly
due to single sector approach. Lack of trained manpower
in coastal and marine affairs for enforcement and management. |
Sedimentation, coral
mining, mangrove cutting, pollution, uncontrolled resource extraction. |
|
India mainland |
|
|
|
|
Gulf of Mannar Biosphere
Reserve (Est. 1989) |
Some areas are highly
degraded, particularly after 1998 bleaching. Degradation continues due to
resource exploitation and sedimentation |
Action Plan prepared but
weak implementation and management. |
Coral and sand mining,
uncontrolled resource harvesting, sedimentation and industrial pollution. |
|
Gulf of Kutch Marine National Park (Est. 1980) |
Heavily degraded. |
Action Plan prepared but
weak management. No buffer zones, & possible losses for industrial
development |
Coral mining, mangrove
cutting, pollution from industrial development and sedimentation. |
|
Lakshadweep |
|
|
|
|
One declared national park |
Corals have not recovered
after the 1998 bleaching. |
Management is weak |
Subsistence fishing and
coral mining? |
|
Andaman
& Nicobar Islands |
|
|
|
|
Mahatma Gandhi Marine
National Park, (Wandur National Park) Andaman Islands (Est. 1983) |
Coral reef resources
relatively well protected. |
Action Plan has been
implemented |
Sedimentation,
crown-of-thorns starfish, tourism and souvenir collecting. |
|
Rani Jansi Marine National
Park, Ritchie’s Archipelago (Est. 1997) |
No information |
Action Plan has been
implemented |
No information |
|
Maldives |
|
|
|
|
25 Marine Protected areas
established. (15 Sites Est. 1995) (10 Sites Est. 1999) |
Good condition other than
bleaching which affected most coral reefs in the region. |
All sites are for tourists
& popular dive sites. Little
active management or enforcement of regulations. Lower human impacts compared
to other countries in region. |
Boat anchoring, dive
tourism. Crown-of-thorns starfish. Conflicts between tourism & fisheries
users. |
|
Sri
Lanka |
|
|
|
|
Hikkaduwa Nature Reserve
(Est. 1979 as Hikkaduwa Marine Sanctuary). Upgraded to a Nature Reserve in
1998. Bar Reef Marine Sanctuary
(Est. 1992) |
Very poor condition only
7% live coral in 1999, little
recovery except for some large corals. Shallow coral areas highly
degraded after 1998 bleaching. |
Management plan exists
since 1996 but no management. Reef zones of 1997 lost due to lack of
maintenance. Management issues
identified, recommendations made but no management. |
Sediments, physical damage
by glass bottom & fishing boats, reef trampling, sewage pollution &
waste water. Crown-of-horns starfish,
over-exploitation of fish, chanks, sea cucumbers, ornamental fish. |
BOXES
Box 1: GCRMN South Asia Node
Following
a review of the project work in 2001 a series of revisions were made to the
project logical framework to better reflect the changing needs of the network
partners within the region. The focus of the work has moved to the 4 core
activities of:
·
Enhancing
the capacity developed among national & regional counterparts to develop
& implement coral reef monitoring programmes.
·
Developing
monitoring systems for the biophysical & socio-economic aspects of coral
reefs designed & adapted for national, regional & global use.
- Enable processes for more effective use of
coral reef monitoring to contribute to coral reef management planning.
- Generate awareness & understanding of
issues related to sustainable use & management of coral reefs.
Over
the course of the project the capacity to collect and store biophysical and
socio economic data has been significantly improved in India, Sri Lanka and The
Maldives. This is reflected by the ever increasing numbers of government
departments, NGOs and Universities who are undertaking research and management
work to improve the status of the reefs and the reef dependent communities
across the region. In order to develop this further the project has focused on
developing the skills needed to use information to inform and influence a
change in the stakeholders who are affecting the benefits generated by the
coral reefs of the region. This work has been done in conjunction with
Integrated Marine Management UK who have developed an informing and influencing
framework under the DFID funded Sustainable Coastal Livelihoods project within
South Asia. The node has continued to form strong links with other national and
regional initiatives in an attempt to bring about an increased level of
coordination and coherence to the coral reef work undertaken.
The second phase of funding for the South Asia Node of the GCRMN, provided by the UK department for International Development, is due to finish in December 2002 and negotiations over future funding for the project are underway.
Node Contacts and
Representatives.
India: The Ministry of
Environment and Forests (Dr E.V. Muley – muley@vsnl.com)
Sri Lanka: National Aquatic
Resources Research and Development Agency (Arjan Rajasuriya arjan@nara.ac.lk)
Maldives: The Marine
Research Centre of the Ministry of Fisheries Agriculture and Marine Resources
(Hussein Zahir - marine@fishagri.gov.mv)
Regional Coordinator: Ben Cattermoul, Address. 53 Horton Place, Colombo 7, Sri Lanka: Tel. 00 94 1 682 478; fax 00 94 1 682 470 email: reefmonitor@eureka.lk
Box 2 – Sri Lanka and Maldives Coral Reef Forums
As a step toward building the coral reef
networks in Sri Lanka and the Maldives the GCRMN South Asia has initiated coral
reef forums in Sri Lanka and the Maldives. The forums offer a unique chance for many of
the stakeholders in the coral reefs to come together and share ideas and
information, and to come up with new ways of tackling the highly complex issues
that the coral reefs are faced with. Representatives from a diverse range of
organisations and institutions including User Group Associations, NGOs,
Universities, Government Ministries, Government Agencies, Divisional
Secretaries, Donor Projects and International Initiatives, discussed issues
relevant to the long term future of their countries coral reefs.
As the forums develop
it is hoped that they will serve to encourage a more coordinated and coherent
approach too coral reef initiatives and will serve as the medium for the
exchange of ideas, information and best practice. A positive start has been
made in Sri Lanka where CORDIO and SACEP are working with the Sri Lanka coral
reef forum to review past uses of the alternative livelihoods initiatives
within Sri Lanka and produce recommendations for future initiatives.
For further information about
the coral reef forums see www.ioc.unesco.org/gcrmn
or contact the GCRMN national coordinators -National Aquatic Resources
Research and Development Agency (Arjan Rajasuriya arjan@nara.ac.lk) Maldives: The Marine
Research Centre of the Ministry of Fisheries Agriculture and Marine Resources
(Hussein Zahir - marine@fishagri.gov.mv)
Box 3: How the poor
value their reefs
There has been much work on
the economic valuation of reefs that has been useful for informing policies
related to both conservation and sustainable use of reef ecosystems. As part of its work in support of the
livelihoods of the poor in coastal areas, the UK government’s Department for International
Development (DFID) wanted to know more about how the poor value reefs them
selves. As a consequence DFID
commissioned IMM Ltd of the UK to work with reef-dependent communities in the
Gulf of Mannar, the Andaman Islands and Lakshadweep islands in India, and in
Mozambique to collate some examples of how different communities benefit from
reefs and how they assess those benefit flows in terms of their wider
livelihoods.
The benefits include not
only the more obvious concerns, such as access to fish for food and sale or the
protection aspects of the reef. The
reef also provides spiritual benefits, provides a basis for learning, increases
opportunities for women to engage in fishing, provides a focus for social
collaboration, and increases access to a diversity of market opportunities provided
by the wide range of species available.
IMM’s work with the coastal
poor will be completed in November of 2002 in the meantime progress can be
followed at: http://www.ex.ac.uk/imm/rla.htm
Box 4: Linking Reefs to Policy
Whilst much has been done to
develop conservation of coastal resources in South Asia, the poor often find
themselves left behind in the development process. DFID, concerned about the potential for the poor being marginalized
by coastal development asked IMM Ltd of the UK to explore the linkages between
coastal policy and poverty and to begin to develop some guidance that might
overcome some of these difficulties.
The Sustainable Coastal
Livelihoods (SCL) project, which focuses on India, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka,
has identified key policy problem areas that affect the involvement of the poor
and have started t identify ways around these.
Not least of these is the need for the right information about coastal
issues to reach the right people in the right format to bring about appropriate
behaviour change. The SCL project
developed an approach to developing and informing and influencing strategy that
has been piloted through GCRMN workshops in Sri Lanka, India and Maldives. This has helped workshop participants to
view their informing and influencing roles in relation to reef issues in a much
more collaborative way, realising that working together provides greater
influence that working alone. For more
information on the SCL project see: http://www.ex.ac.uk/imm/SCL.htm
Box 4: The ADB CRMP
project in Sri Lanka
Focusing on the Bar Reef,
Hikkaduwa and Unawatuna and creating special area management plans ……./ to
arrive Wednesday25th
Box 5: The AUSAID
Marine Protected Areas Project – The Maldives
The AusAID funded
the bilateral project is known as the Maldives Protected Area project (MPAS).
This project began early in 1997 with a feasibility study followed by the
establishment of an office in Male, the capital, early 2000 and is managed by
AMSAT Pty Ltd, Canberra. The stated goal of the project was ‘to contribute to the protection of
ecological resources in the Maldives and thereby supporting long-term
ecological sustainable development and biodiversity maintenance’.
This project is
focused on establishing a system of protected areas by first establishing pilot
or prototype sites. In establishing a pilot site the project is aiming to be
able to demonstrated the constraints and suggest methodologies required for the
establishment of a national system.
The first pilot
site is on the Island of Hithadhoo in Addu Atoll, Figure 1. The site is
representative of many of the biological, cultural, community and institutional
issues that face the Government of the Maldives and many other small island
developing nations.
The strategy
adopted for this project is to select and trial a site selection process,
undertake biological and socio-economic surveys as well as establishing the
potential boundaries and management options, conduct a community participation
program, instigate an educational program, and transfer the skills to
counterparts.
Recommendations
arising from the establishment of the pilot sites focused on changes to
legislation and institutional arrangements, community awareness systems and the
level of assessment and monitoring required for the site as well as the type of
management plan that could be adopted.
Contact: AUSAID MPAS
Office, Geoff Dews, Tel: 00 960 337836,
Email: dews@ozemail.com.au
Figure 1. Addu Atoll showing the site of the
pilot project
Contact: Geoff Dews